This Article  • References  • Full text PDF  • Reply to article  • Send to a friend  • Save in My Folder  • Save to citation manager  • Permissions  Citing Articles  • Citation map  • Citing articles on HighWire  • Citing articles on Web of Science (1347)  • Contact me when this article is cited  Related Content  • Similar articles in this journal  Social Bookmarking   What's this?

C. Robert Cloninger, MD; Dragan M. Svrakic, MD, PhD; Thomas R. Przybeck, PhD

Arch Gen Psychiatry. 1993;50(12):975-990.

Abstract
In this study, we describe a psychobiological model of the structure and development of personality that accounts for dimensions of both temperament and character. Previous research has confirmed four dimensions of temperament: novelty seeking, harm avoidance, reward dependence, and persistence, which are independently heritable, manifest early in life, and involve preconceptual biases in perceptual memory and habit formation. For the first time, we describe three dimensions of character that mature in adulthood and influence personal and social effectiveness by insight learning about self-concepts. Self-concepts vary according to the extent to which a person identifies the self as (1) an autonomous individual, (2) an integral part of humanity, and (3) an integral part of the universe as a whole. Each aspect of self-concept corresponds to one of three character dimensions called self-directedness, cooperativeness, and selftranscendence, respectively. We also describe the conceptual background and development of a self-report measure of these dimensions, the Temperament and Character Inventory. Data on 300 individuals from the general population support the reliability and structure of these seven personality dimensions. We discuss the implications for studies of information processing, inheritance, development, diagnosis, and treatment. (Arch Gen Psychiatry. 1993;50:975-990)

Author Affiliations
From the Department of Psychiatry, Washington University School of Medicine, St Louis, Mo.

CiteULike    Connotea    Del.icio.us    Digg    Reddit    Technorati    Twitter     What's this?

THIS ARTICLE HAS BEEN CITED BY OTHER ARTICLES

Sex Differences in Sum Scores May Be Hard to Interpret: The Importance of Measurement Invariance
Slof-Op 't Landt et al.
Assessment 2009;16:415-423.
ABSTRACT  

Striatal Dopamine D2/D3 Receptor Availability Is Reduced in Methamphetamine Dependence and Is Linked to Impulsivity
Lee et al.
J. Neurosci. 2009;29:14734-14740.
ABSTRACT | FULL TEXT  

Temperament and Character Profiles of Sasang Typology in an Adult Clinical Sample
Park et al.
Evid Based Complement Alternat Med 2009;0:nep034v2-nep034.
ABSTRACT | FULL TEXT  

Substance use, trait measures, and subjective response to nicotine in never-smokers stratified on parental smoking history and sex
Pomerleau et al.
Nicotine Tob Res 2009;11:1055-1066.
ABSTRACT | FULL TEXT  

Borderline Personality Disorder: Ontogeny of a Diagnosis
Gunderson
Am. J. Psychiatry 2009;166:530-539.
ABSTRACT | FULL TEXT  

Impulsiveness and Cigarette Smoking
Flory and Manuck
Psychosom. Med. 2009;71:431-437.
ABSTRACT | FULL TEXT  

Executive Function and Decision-Making in Women with Fibromyalgia
Verdejo-Garcia et al.
Arch Clin Neuropsychol 2009;0:acp014v1-10.
ABSTRACT | FULL TEXT  

Use of the Temperament and Character Inventory (TCI) for Assessment of Personality in Chronic Fatigue Syndrome
Van Campen et al.
Psychosomatics 2009;50:147-154.
ABSTRACT | FULL TEXT  

Aripiprazole in the treatment of patients with alcohol dependence: a double-blind, comparison trial vs. Naltrexone
Martinotti et al.
J Psychopharmacol 2009;23:123-129.
ABSTRACT  

Relationship of Type 1 Cannabinoid Receptor Availability in the Human Brain to Novelty-Seeking Temperament
Van Laere et al.
Arch Gen Psychiatry 2009;66:196-204.
ABSTRACT | FULL TEXT  

Characterizing Anxious Children with an Obsessive Difficult Temperament
Wood et al.
Clin Child Psychol Psychiatry 2009;14:85-99.
ABSTRACT  

Assessment Procedures for Narcissistic Personality Disorder: A Comparison of the Personality Diagnostic Questionnaire-4 and Best-Estimate Clinical Judgments
Miller et al.
Assessment 2008;15:483-492.
ABSTRACT  

Sex-Linked Neuroanatomical Basis of Human Altruistic Cooperativeness
Yamasue et al.
Cereb Cortex 2008;18:2331-2340.
ABSTRACT | FULL TEXT  

Using the Temperament and Character Inventory (TCI) to Predict Outcome after Inpatient Detoxification during 100 Days of Outpatient Treatment
Arnau et al.
Alcohol Alcohol 2008;43:583-588.
ABSTRACT | FULL TEXT  

Affective Traits in Schizophrenia and Schizotypy
Horan et al.
Schizophr Bull 2008;34:856-874.
ABSTRACT | FULL TEXT  

Power, Anger, and Sadistic Rapists: Toward a Differentiated Model of Offender Personality
Pardue and Arrigo
Int J Offender Ther Comp Criminol 2008;52:378-400.
ABSTRACT  

Personality and Defense Mechanisms in Late Adulthood
Yong Yu et al.
J Aging Health 2008;20:526-544.
ABSTRACT  

Opioid Receptor PET Reveals the Psychobiologic Correlates of Reward Processing
Schreckenberger et al.
JNM 2008;49:1257-1261.
ABSTRACT | FULL TEXT  

The Relationship Between Obstetric Complications and Temperament in Eating Disorders: A Mediation Hypothesis
Favaro et al.
Psychosom. Med. 2008;70:372-377.
ABSTRACT | FULL TEXT  

Experimenting with Spirituality: Analyzing The God Gene in a Nonmajors Laboratory Course
Silveira
cellbioed 2008;7:132-145.
ABSTRACT | FULL TEXT  

Psychopathological features of a patient population of targets of workplace bullying
Brousse et al.
Occup Med (Lond) 2008;58:122-128.
ABSTRACT | FULL TEXT  

Gender-Common and -Specific Neuroanatomical Basis of Human Anxiety-Related Personality Traits
Yamasue et al.
Cereb Cortex 2008;18:46-52.
ABSTRACT | FULL TEXT  

Psychometric and Structural Analysis of the MMPI-2 Personality Psychopathology Five (PSY-5) Facet Subscales
Quilty and Bagby
Assessment 2007;14:375-384.
ABSTRACT  

CHRM2 variation predisposes to personality traits of agreeableness and conscientiousness
Luo et al.
Hum Mol Genet 2007;16:1557-1568.
ABSTRACT | FULL TEXT  

Temperament, character and personality disorders as predictors of response to interpersonal psychotherapy and cognitive-behavioural therapy for depression
JOYCE et al.
Br. J. Psychiatry 2007;190:503-508.
ABSTRACT | FULL TEXT  

Concurrent alcohol and tobacco use during early adolescence characterizes a group at risk
Schmid et al.
Alcohol Alcohol 2007;42:219-225.
ABSTRACT | FULL TEXT  

Factors Associated With Dopaminergic Drug-Related Pathological Gambling in Parkinson Disease
Voon et al.
Arch Neurol 2007;64:212-216.
ABSTRACT | FULL TEXT  

Clinical, Psychological, and Personality Correlates of Asceticism in Anorexia Nervosa: From Saint Anorexia to Pathologic Perfectionism
Fassino et al.
Transcultural Psychiatry 2006;43:600-614.
ABSTRACT  

What Is Familial About Familial Bipolar Disorder?: Resemblance Among Relatives Across a Broad Spectrum of Phenotypic Characteristics
Schulze et al.
Arch Gen Psychiatry 2006;63:1368-1376.
ABSTRACT | FULL TEXT  

Catechol O-methyltransferase Val158Met Genotype and Neural Mechanisms Related to Affective Arousal and Regulation
Drabant et al.
Arch Gen Psychiatry 2006;63:1396-1406.
ABSTRACT | FULL TEXT  

Conduct Disorder and Antisocial Personality Disorder in Persons With Severe Psychiatric and Substance Use Disorders
Mueser et al.
Schizophr Bull 2006;32:626-636.
ABSTRACT | FULL TEXT  

Psychopathology, personality traits and social development of young first-degree relatives of patients with schizophrenia
GLATT et al.
Br. J. Psychiatry 2006;189:337-345.
ABSTRACT | FULL TEXT  

Plasma oxytocin levels in depression and their correlation with the temperament dimension of reward dependence
Bell et al.
J Psychopharmacol 2006;20:656-660.
ABSTRACT  

Subthalamic Stimulation in Parkinson Disease: Behavior and Social Adaptation.
Houeto et al.
Arch Neurol 2006;63:1090-1095.
ABSTRACT | FULL TEXT  

The Impact of ADHD and Autism Spectrum Disorders on Temperament, Character, and Personality Development
Anckarsater et al.
Am. J. Psychiatry 2006;163:1239-1244.
ABSTRACT | FULL TEXT  

Features Associated With Laxative Abuse in Individuals With Eating Disorders
Tozzi et al.
Psychosom. Med. 2006;68:470-477.
ABSTRACT | FULL TEXT  

Do the Personalities of International and U.S. Medical Graduates in Psychiatry Differ? A Preliminary Study
Vaidya et al.
Acad. Psychiatry 2006;30:174-177.
ABSTRACT | FULL TEXT  

How Do Psychological Factors Influence Adolescent Smoking Progression? The Evidence for Indirect Effects Through Tobacco Advertising Receptivity
Audrain-McGovern et al.
Pediatrics 2006;117:1216-1225.
ABSTRACT | FULL TEXT  

Genetic independence of mouse measures of some aspects of novelty seeking
Kliethermes and Crabbe
Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 2006;103:5018-5023.
ABSTRACT | FULL TEXT  

Investigation of the Serotonin Transporter Regulatory Region Polymorphism in Bulimia Nervosa: Relationships to Harm Avoidance, Nutritional Parameters, and Psychiatric Comorbidity
Monteleone et al.
Psychosom. Med. 2006;68:99-103.
ABSTRACT | FULL TEXT  

The endophenotype of impulsivity: reaching consilience through behavioral, genetic, and neuroimaging approaches.
Congdon and Canli
Behav Cogn Neurosci Rev 2005;4:262-281.
ABSTRACT  

A Simplified Technique for Scoring DSM-IV Personality Disorders With the Five-Factor Model
Miller et al.
Assessment 2005;12:404-415.
ABSTRACT  

Factors influencing susceptibility to compulsive dopaminergic drug use in Parkinson disease
Evans et al.
Neurology 2005;65:1570-1574.
ABSTRACT | FULL TEXT  

Dimensional Representations of DSM-IV Personality Disorders: Relationships to Functional Impairment
Skodol et al.
Am. J. Psychiatry 2005;162:1919-1925.
ABSTRACT | FULL TEXT  

Psychodynamic Approaches to Personality Disorders
Gabbard
Focus 2005;3:363-367.
ABSTRACT | FULL TEXT  

Quick Reference FOR PERSONALITY DISORDERS
Focus 2005;3:368-371.
FULL TEXT  

Personality Disorders
Oldham
Focus 2005;3:372-382.
FULL TEXT  

Temperament and Character Profiles and the Dopamine D4 Receptor Gene in ADHD
Lynn et al.
Am. J. Psychiatry 2005;162:906-913.
ABSTRACT | FULL TEXT  

Mind, Brain, and Personality Disorders
Gabbard
Am. J. Psychiatry 2005;162:648-655.
ABSTRACT | FULL TEXT  

Symptom Fluctuation in Eating Disorders: Correlates of Diagnostic Crossover
Tozzi et al.
Am. J. Psychiatry 2005;162:732-740.
ABSTRACT | FULL TEXT  

Character Strengths and Virtues: A Handbook and Classification
CLONINGER
Am. J. Psychiatry 2005;162:820-821.
FULL TEXT  

A Susceptibility Gene for Affective Disorders and the Response of the Human Amygdala
Hariri et al.
Arch Gen Psychiatry 2005;62:146-152.
ABSTRACT | FULL TEXT  

Sex differences in cortisol response to reboxetine
Tse and Bond
J Psychopharmacol 2005;19:46-50.
ABSTRACT  

Self-Report Measures of Juvenile Psychopathic Personality Traits: A Comparative Review
Vaughn and Howard
Journal of Emotional and Behavioral Disorders 2005;13:152-162.
ABSTRACT  

Comorbidity of Anxiety Disorders With Anorexia and Bulimia Nervosa
Kaye et al.
Am. J. Psychiatry 2004;161:2215-2221.
ABSTRACT | FULL TEXT  

Regional Brain Activity in Women Grieving a Romantic Relationship Breakup
Najib et al.
Am. J. Psychiatry 2004;161:2245-2256.
ABSTRACT | FULL TEXT  

Drug treatment for personality disorders
Tyrer and Bateman
Adv. Psychiatr. Treat. 2004;10:389-398.
ABSTRACT | FULL TEXT  

Implications of Childhood Trauma for Depressed Women: An Analysis of Pathways From Childhood Sexual Abuse to Deliberate Self-Harm and Revictimization
Gladstone et al.
Am. J. Psychiatry 2004;161:1417-1425.
ABSTRACT | FULL TEXT  

Personality in essential tremor: further evidence of non-motor manifestations of the disease
Chatterjee et al.
J. Neurol. Neurosurg. Psychiatry 2004;75:958-961.
ABSTRACT | FULL TEXT  

Alexithymia and Personality in Relation to Dimensions of Psychopathology
Grabe et al.
Am. J. Psychiatry 2004;161:1299-1301.
ABSTRACT | FULL TEXT  

DO ALCOHOL EXPECTANCIES AND PEER DELINQUENCY/SUBSTANCE USE MEDIATE THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN IMPULSIVITY AND DRINKING BEHAVIOUR IN ADOLESCENCE?
Barnow et al.
Alcohol Alcohol 2004;39:213-219.
ABSTRACT | FULL TEXT  

Recurrent Abdominal Pain, Anxiety, and Depression in Primary Care
Campo et al.
Pediatrics 2004;113:817-824.
ABSTRACT | FULL TEXT  

Application of a Latent Class Analysis to Empirically Define Eating Disorder Phenotypes
Keel et al.
Arch Gen Psychiatry 2004;61:192-200.
ABSTRACT | FULL TEXT  

Alexithymia Correlates With the Size of the Right Anterior Cingulate
Gundel et al.
Psychosom. Med. 2004;66:132-140.
ABSTRACT | FULL TEXT  

The Serotonin System and Spiritual Experiences
Borg et al.
Am. J. Psychiatry 2003;160:1965-1969.
ABSTRACT | FULL TEXT  

A Polymorphism in the Serotonin Receptor 3A (HTR3A) Gene and Its Association With Harm Avoidance in Women
Melke et al.
Arch Gen Psychiatry 2003;60:1017-1023.
ABSTRACT | FULL TEXT  

The Role of Psychiatric Disorders in Predicting Drug Dependence Treatment Outcomes
Compton III et al.
Am. J. Psychiatry 2003;160:890-895.
ABSTRACT | FULL TEXT  

Personality Traits and Striatal Dopamine Synthesis Capacity in Healthy Subjects
Laakso et al.
Am. J. Psychiatry 2003;160:904-910.
ABSTRACT | FULL TEXT  

A Sib-Pair Study of the Temperament and Character Inventory Scales in Major Depression
Farmer et al.
Arch Gen Psychiatry 2003;60:490-496.
ABSTRACT | FULL TEXT  

Association Between the Type 4 Dopamine Receptor Gene Polymorphism and Novelty Seeking
Keltikangas-Jarvinen et al.
Psychosom. Med. 2003;65:471-476.
ABSTRACT | FULL TEXT  

Persistence and brain circuitry
Gusnard et al.
Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 2003;100:3479-3484.
ABSTRACT | FULL TEXT  

Neuroticism and depression * Authors' reply
McWilliams et al.
Br. J. Psychiatry 2003;182:80-80.
FULL TEXT  

The effect of acute tryptophan depletion on probabilistic choice
Anderson et al.
J Psychopharmacol 2003;17:3-7.
ABSTRACT  

Psychophysiological Reactivity: Mechanisms and Pathways to Cardiovascular Disease
Lovallo and Gerin
Psychosom. Med. 2003;65:36-45.
ABSTRACT | FULL TEXT  

Apathy in Parkinson's disease
Pluck and Brown
J. Neurol. Neurosurg. Psychiatry 2002;73:636-642.
ABSTRACT | FULL TEXT  

Temperament and Character in Adults with Asperger Syndrome
Soderstrom et al.
Autism 2002;6:287-297.
ABSTRACT  

A Quantitative Review of the Comprehensiveness of the Five-Factor Model in Relation to Popular Personality Inventories
O'Connor
Assessment 2002;9:188-203.
ABSTRACT  

Defining Character Integrity
Horowitz
J Am Psychoanal Assoc 2002;50:551-573.
ABSTRACT  

Confirmatory Factor Analysis of DSM-IV Criteria for Borderline Personality Disorder: Findings From the Collaborative Longitudinal Personality Disorders Study
Sanislow et al.
Am. J. Psychiatry 2002;159:284-290.
ABSTRACT | FULL TEXT  

INCREASED NOVELTY SEEKING AND DECREASED HARM AVOIDANCE IN RATS SHOWING TYPE 2-LIKE BEHAVIOUR FOLLOWING BASAL FOREBRAIN NEURONAL LOSS
Johansson and Hansen
Alcohol Alcohol 2001;36:520-524.
ABSTRACT | FULL TEXT  

TEMPERAMENT AND CHARACTER INVENTORY (TCI) PERSONALITY PROFILE AND SUB-TYPING IN ALCOHOLIC PATIENTS: A CONTROLLED STUDY
Basiaux et al.
Alcohol Alcohol 2001;36:584-587.
ABSTRACT | FULL TEXT  

Genetic Architecture of Temperament
LICHTERMANN et al.
Am. J. Psychiatry 2001;158:1339-1339.
FULL TEXT  

Personality disorder
Tyrer
Br. J. Psychiatry 2001;179:81-84.
FULL TEXT  

Serotonergic involvement in the psychosocial dimension of personality
Tse and Bond
J Psychopharmacol 2001;15:195-198.
ABSTRACT  

Psychopathology and personality characteristics in relation to blood serotonin in Tourette's syndrome and obsessive-compulsive disorder
Cath et al.
J Psychopharmacol 2001;15:111-119.
ABSTRACT  

Emotion-induced changes in human medial prefrontal cortex: II. During anticipatory anxiety
Simpson et al.
Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 2001;98:688-693.
ABSTRACT | FULL TEXT  

Personality disorders and normal personality dimensions in obsessive--compulsive disorder
SAMUELS et al.
Br. J. Psychiatry 2000;177:457-462.
ABSTRACT | FULL TEXT  

Factor Analysis of the DSM-III-R Borderline Personality Disorder Criteria in Psychiatric Inpatients
Sanislow et al.
Am. J. Psychiatry 2000;157:1629-1633.
ABSTRACT | FULL TEXT  

Double-Blind Comparison of Sertraline, Imipramine, and Placebo in the Treatment of Dysthymia: Effects on Personality
Hellerstein et al.
Am. J. Psychiatry 2000;157:1436-1444.
ABSTRACT | FULL TEXT  

Do the Dimensions of the Temperament and Character Inventory Map a Simple Genetic Architecture? Evidence From Molecular Genetics and Factor Analysis
Herbst et al.
Am. J. Psychiatry 2000;157:1285-1290.
ABSTRACT | FULL TEXT