This Article  • References  • Full text PDF  • Reply to article  • Send to a friend  • Save in My Folder  • Save to citation manager  • Permissions  Citing Articles  • Citation map  • Citing articles on HighWire  • Contact me when this article is cited  Related Content  • Similar articles in this journal  Social Bookmarking   What's this?

Remi J. Cadoret, MD; William R. Yates, MD; Troughton Ed, PhD; George Woodworth, PhD; Mark A. Stewart, MD

Arch Gen Psychiatry. 1995;52(1):42-52.

Abstract
Background
Studies of adoptees have demonstrated that there are two genetic factors leading to alcohol abuse and/or dependence (abuse/dependence). In addition, environmental factors found in the adoptive family also predict alcohol abuse/dependency independently. One study has found evidence that a similar model of two genetic factors and independent adoptive family factors were involved in drug abuse. Our study was designed to test the hypothesis that genetic factors defined by alcohol abuse/dependency and antisocial personality disorder in biologic parents were etiologic in drug abuse/dependency and that psychiatric problems in adoptive parents were an additional factor associated with drug abuse/dependence.

Methods
A sample of 95 male adoptees, separated at birth from their biologic parents, were followed up as adults to determine their psychiatric diagnosis and their substance use/abuse in a structured interview administered blind to biologic parent diagnoses. A high-risk, case-control design was used wherein half of the adoptees came from biologic parents known to be alcohol abuser/dependent and/or have antisocial personalities (diagnoses from hospital or prison records). These adoptees were matched for age, sex, and adoption agency to a control group of adoptees whose biologic parents were not found in the hospital and prison record search. Adoptive home environment was assessed by structured interviews, including psychiatric assessment of both adoptive parents.

Results
Data were analyzed by log-linear modeling, which showed evidence of two genetic pathways to drug abuse/dependency. One pathway went directly from a biologic parent's alcoholism to drug abuse/dependency. The second pathway was more circuitous, and started with antisocial personality disorder in the biologic parent and proceeded through intervening variables of adoptee aggressivity, conduct disorder, antisocial personality disorder, and, eventually, ended in drug abuse/dependency. Environmental factors defined by psychiatric conditions in adoptive families independently predicted increased antisocial personality disorder in the adoptee. Adoptees born of alcohol-abusing mothers showed evidence of fetal alcohol syndrome, but controlling for this did not diminish the evidence for the direct genetic effect between an alcohol-abusing biologic parent and drug abuse/dependency in offspring.

Conclusions
This study confirms the model of two independent genetic factors involved in drug abuse/dependence and previous findings that disturbed adoptive parents are associated with adoptee drug abuse/dependency.

Author Affiliations
From the Departments of Psychiatry (Drs Cadoret, Yates, and Stewart and Mr Troughton), Statistics (Dr Woodworth), and Preventive Medicine (Dr Woodworth), University of Iowa, Iowa City.

CiteULike    Connotea    Del.icio.us    Digg    Reddit    Technorati    Twitter     What's this?

THIS ARTICLE HAS BEEN CITED BY OTHER ARTICLES

Examination of the Nicotine Dependence (NICSNP) Consortium findings in the Iowa adoption studies population
Philibert et al.
Nicotine Tob Res 2009;0:ntn034v1-ntn034.
ABSTRACT | FULL TEXT  

Genome-Wide Association for Methamphetamine Dependence: Convergent Results From 2 Samples
Uhl et al.
Arch Gen Psychiatry 2008;65:345-355.
ABSTRACT | FULL TEXT  

Genomewide suggestive linkage of opioid dependence to chromosome 14q
Lachman et al.
Hum Mol Genet 2007;16:1327-1334.
ABSTRACT | FULL TEXT  

A Genome-Wide Search for Quantitative Trait Loci That Influence Antisocial Drug Dependence in Adolescence
Stallings et al.
Arch Gen Psychiatry 2005;62:1042-1051.
ABSTRACT | FULL TEXT  

Pooled association genome scanning: Validation and use to identify addiction vulnerability loci in two samples
Liu et al.
Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 2005;102:11864-11869.
ABSTRACT | FULL TEXT  

Family Transmission and Heritability of Externalizing Disorders: A Twin-Family Study
Hicks et al.
Arch Gen Psychiatry 2004;61:922-928.
ABSTRACT | FULL TEXT  

Psychopathology Risk Transmission in Children of Parents With Substance Use Disorders
Clark et al.
Am. J. Psychiatry 2004;161:685-691.
ABSTRACT | FULL TEXT  

CORRELATES OF EXTERNALIZING SYMPTOMS IN CHILDREN FROM FAMILIES OF ALCOHOLICS AND CONTROLS
Schuckit et al.
Alcohol Alcohol 2003;38:559-567.
ABSTRACT | FULL TEXT  

Twin Studies of Psychiatric Illness: An Update
Kendler
Arch Gen Psychiatry 2001;58:1005-1014.
ABSTRACT | FULL TEXT  

Risk Factors for Adolescent Substance Abuse
Weinberg
J Learn Disabil 2001;34:343-351.
ABSTRACT  

RISK FACTORS FOR ALCOHOL DEPENDENCE: A CASE-CONTROL STUDY
Poikolainen
Alcohol Alcohol 2000;35:190-196.
ABSTRACT | FULL TEXT  

Illicit Psychoactive Substance Use, Heavy Use, Abuse, and Dependence in a US Population-Based Sample of Male Twins
Kendler et al.
Arch Gen Psychiatry 2000;57:261-269.
ABSTRACT | FULL TEXT  

Caffeine Intake, Tolerance, and Withdrawal in Women: A Population-Based Twin Study
Kendler and Prescott
Am. J. Psychiatry 1999;156:223-228.
ABSTRACT | FULL TEXT  

Familial Transmission of Substance Use Disorders
Merikangas et al.
Arch Gen Psychiatry 1998;55:973-979.
ABSTRACT | FULL TEXT  

Familial Transmission of Substance Dependence: Alcohol, Marijuana, Cocaine, and Habitual Smoking: A Report From the Collaborative Study on the Genetics of Alcoholism
Bierut et al.
Arch Gen Psychiatry 1998;55:982-988.
ABSTRACT | FULL TEXT  

Distinct Contributions of Conduct and Oppositional Defiant Symptoms to Adult Antisocial Behavior: Evidence From an Adoption Study
Langbehn et al.
Arch Gen Psychiatry 1998;55:821-829.
ABSTRACT | FULL TEXT  

A Prospective Follow-up Study of Alcoholic Violent Offenders and Fire Setters
Virkkunen et al.
Arch Gen Psychiatry 1996;53:523-529.
ABSTRACT  

Quantitative Trait Loci Mapping in Mouse Models of Complex Behavior
Ferraro and Berrettini
Cold Spring Harb Symp Quant Biol 1996;61:771-781.
ABSTRACT  

Genetic-Environmental Interaction in the Genesis of Aggressivity and Conduct Disorders
Cadoret et al.
Arch Gen Psychiatry 1995;52:916-924.
ABSTRACT